BIO-201: Human Anatomy and Physiology I: Lab- Full Course Discussions (Topic 1- Topic 7)
TOPIC 1
BIO-201: Human Anatomy and Physiology I: Lab - Topic 1: Anatomy & Physiology, Cell Biology & Homeostasis
Basic anatomy and physiology terminology form the foundational language for the other topics students will cover, and are essential for effective communication in the health care field. The human body is designed with multiple levels of organization. The organelles in cells are responsible for cellular functions and producing adenosine triphosphate (ATP). By understanding the structures of the cell, students will be able to appreciate cellular processes and functions.
Objectives:
- Define the relationship between anatomy and physiology.
- Identify regions and cavities in the human body.
- Identify directional terms and sectional planes on the human body.
- Identify the components of a cell.
- Differentiate between positive and negative feedback mechanisms and their effect(s) on the body.
- Explain the concepts of osmosis and ion permeability.
Assessments
BIO-201: Human Anatomy and Physiology I: Lab - Summary of Current Course Content Knowledge
Assessment Description:
Academic engagement through active participation in instructional activities related to the course objectives is paramount to your success in this course and future courses. Through interaction with your instructor and classmates, you will explore the course material and be provided with the best opportunity for objective and competency mastery. To begin this class, review the course objectives for each Topic, and then answer the following questions as this will help guide your instructor for course instruction.
- Which weekly objectives do you have prior knowledge of and to what extent?
- Which weekly objectives do you have no prior knowledge of?
- What course-related topics would you like to discuss with your instructor and classmates? What questions or concerns do you have about this course?
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SOLUTION to BIO-201: Human Anatomy and Physiology I: Lab - Summary of Current Course Content Knowledge.
Hello class,
Some of the course objectives are familiar to me from other classes I have taken and from my work experience. In particular, I know the connection between anatomy and physiology, the general organization of the articulations and some of the joints and the commonly used muscle groups and their origins, insertions, and functions. Through my prior work experience as a nurse and a health promoter, I learned about various kinds of tissues, basic cell structures, and most organs’ roles in the human body. Also, I have come across with terms such as positive and negative feedback mechanisms and the role of synovial joint in my studies.
However, I still do not know relatively many things concerning some certain aspects of the course. For example, I do not remember with equal clarity procedures for assessing cranial nerves, the details of the ultrastructure of nervous tissue, or the features of the various types of muscular tissue. I also want to enhance my knowledge about the circulation of the Cerebrospinal fluid through the Central Nervous System and the microscopic and macroscopic structures of the Integument Tissue System.
With my instructor and classmates, I would like to hear their opinion on the-oriented approach to learning about the various body systems where I want to know how this knowledge is applied in clinical practice. I am also curious to know how the conceptual knowledge of human anatomy and physiology enhanced from this course will help me in my future endeavors as a nurse as well as patient caretaker.
My major concern will be ensuring that I understand some of the more complex concepts such as the functions of cranial nerves and the complex structures of the nervous system. I am also interested in how such knowledge can be implemented into the real world and into clinical practice and how it will connect with my future classes and personal growth as a practitioner.
BIO-201: Human Anatomy and Physiology I: Lab - Class Introductions
Assessment Description:
Take a moment to explore your new classroom and introduce yourself to your fellow classmates. What are you excited about learning? What do you think will be most challenging?
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SOLUTION to BIO-201: Human Anatomy and Physiology I: Lab - Class Introductions
Hello everyone,
My name is Irene Hartley; I am a nursing student doing my Bachelor of Science in Nursing. In my Certified Nursing Assistant position, I have indeed acquired much direct patient care work experience, and I now look forward with anticipation to furthering my knowledge base as it pertains to the human body in this Anatomy and Physiology course. I would like to focus on the mechanisms of the nervous system and how organs work cohesively to support the human body.
I want to do this because I believe that one of the most engaging features is the ability to examine tissues at the molecular level and comprehend how these formations work in the animal organism. However, as much as I think that some topics for instance the knowledge of cranial nerves and detailed anatomic structures will be difficult to master fully, I am particularly eager to contribute to all this and start working on it with all of you.
BIO-201: Human Anatomy and Physiology I: Lab - Topic 1 DQ 1
Assessment Description:
How will the information you learn this first week help you in your career? Be specific.
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SOLUTION to BIO-201: Human Anatomy and Physiology I: Lab - Topic 1 DQ 1.
Hello class,
Anatomy is the branch of science that deals with the structural makeup of various body parts, while physiology deals with the functions of different body parts. Learning about this relationship in the first week is essential in nursing since it allows the body to function in an integrated manner. For instance, I can understand how each part functions to provide this need by understanding the arrangement of the respiratory system and its components, such as the lungs, trachea, and diaphragm. This knowledge is helpful for me as a Certified Nurse Assistant in several scenarios. For instance, each time I review the structures of the lungs and the gas exchange processes, I am better placed to identify the signs of respiratory distress in patients. If a patient cannot breathe, their employer can understand the physiological cause, such as airway blockage, low arterial oxygen, high arterial carbon dioxide, etc., and immediately relay these to the nursing staff.
Also, anatomy and physiology knowledge is crucial in teaching patients about the status or condition which they are suffering from. In teaching medical diagnoses and explaining specific treatments to patients and families, I can get adequate and concise information next time, thus making them comfortable. This is especially true regarding trust issues and when patients must adhere to specific prescribed measures. In accord with this, understanding the correlation between anatomy and physiology is crucial to ensuring relevant and effective patient care. It gives me the knowledge required to evaluate, manage, and promote patient outcomes, thus improving my performance as I advance in my nursing profession. These concepts will be beneficial when transitioning from a Certified Nurse Assistant to a registered nurse to ensure all my patients get the proper care they need.
TOPIC 2
BIO-201: Human Anatomy and Physiology I: Lab - Topic 2: Tissues and Integument
Tissues are the building blocks of everything in the body. By recognizing the normal structures and functions of tissues, students will be able to understand why various tissues are located in specific organs and areas of the body. By learning the structures of the integumentary system, students will understand the protection function of our skin.
Objectives:
- Identify the four major tissue types.
- Identify the location and function of epithelial and connective tissues.
- Identify glands and epithelial and connective tissues at the microscopic level.
- Identify and describe the components of the integumentary system at the microscopic and macroscopic levels.
- Identify and describe the epidermis, dermis, and hypodermis.
- Explain the importance of pigmentation and the ABCD method of evaluation of skin malignancy.
Assessments
BIO-201: Human Anatomy and Physiology I: Lab - Topic 2 DQ 1
Assessment Description:
Choose a type of epithelial or connective tissue, then identify where it can be located and explain how its structure contributes to its function
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SOLUTION to BIO-201: Human Anatomy and Physiology I: Lab - Topic 2 DQ 1.
Hello everyone,
Hyaline cartilage, also known as white cartilage, is connective tissue that is smooth, clear, and slightly glossy. It can be found in parts of the body that need strength and elasticity. According to Vinod et al. (2021), it is present in areas such as the nasal cavity, trachea, larynx, and ends of long bones, where it forms the articular cartilage at joints. Also found in the fetal skeleton, bony tissue replaces hyaline cartilage during ossification. The structure of hyaline cartilage reflects its processes effectively. It comprises a tightly interwoven basket-like structure of collagen fibrils supported by a rigid, rubber-like ground substance of proteoglycans and water. This matrix imparts the tissue its characteristic blend of toughness and elasticity. Chondrocytes are found in the cavities known as the lacunae within the matrix. They are responsible for the production of collagen and proteoglycans necessary for the structural integrity of the matrix.
Lindahl et al. (2023) state that the fact that hyaline cartilage is non-frictional, translucent, smooth, and slippery is a plus for joints because bones shave against each other without discomfort. It is also involved with the distribution of loads across the arts and reduces the loads acting on a joint to prevent bone tissue damage and sustain joint integrity. In the respiratory system, hyaline cartilage gives rigidity to maintain patent airways in the nose and nasal passages, as well as trachea and bronchi for air passage during respiration. Hyaline cartilage also acts as a model for bone in the developing fetus, and with growth, it is progressively replaced by bony tissue.
The load-bearing property and smooth, low frictional surface of hyaline cartilage is also due to its organization at the micro level. The collagen fibers make it strong in tension; the ground substance or proteoglycan matrix draws water, allowing it to absorb pressure. This precise relationship between structure and function enables hyaline cartilage to provide support and flexibility and act as a smooth, low-friction bearing in joints.
References
Lindahl, A., Brittberg, M., Gibbs, D., Dawson, J. I., Kanczler, J., Black, C., ... & Oreffo, R. O. (2023). Cartilage and bone regeneration. In Tissue Engineering (pp. 533-583). https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-824459-3.00016-0
Vinod, E., Parameswaran, R., Ramasamy, B., & Kachroo, U. (2021). Pondering the potential of hyaline cartilage–derived chondroprogenitors for tissue regeneration: A systematic review. Cartilage, 13(2_suppl), 34S-52S. https://doi.org/10.1177/1947603520951631
TOPIC 3
BIO-201: Human Anatomy and Physiology I: Lab - Topic 3: Skeleton
Every bone in the body has unique landmarks, processes, and protrusions. It is important to understand these landmarks and how they allow for ligament and muscle attachment.
Objectives:
- Differentiate between axial and appendicular skeletons.
- Identify and describe the function of bones of the skull and significant markings and openings.
- Describe key structural differences between the skulls of infants and those of adults.
- Identify and describe the curvatures of the spinal column and their functions.
- Identify the markings and structures specific to each region of vertebral anatomy.
- Explain the relationship of the articulations in the thoracic cage.
- List and identify bones, their functions, and superficial features.
Assessments
BIO-201: Human Anatomy and Physiology I: Lab - Topic 3 DQ 1
Assessment Description:
Describe the structural and functional differences between the vertebral types (cervical/thoracic/lumbar).
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SOLUTION to BIO-201: Human Anatomy and Physiology I: Lab - Topic 3 DQ 1.
Hello everyone,
The vertebral column is among the most important structures in the human body and comprises a series of different vertebrae that are differently structured and function. Such vertebral types are categorized into cervical, thoracic, and lumbar regions, and all the vertebral areas have unique functions.
The cervical vertebrae are seven in the neck region and numbered C1 to C7. These are smaller and less robust in structure than thoracic and lumbar vertebrae due to their supportive role of the head and the associated mobility. The first cervical vertebra is called the atlas, and the second cervical vertebra is called the axis, which allows for the rotation of the human head (Ovsepyan et al., 2022). The cervical vertebrae possess transverse foramen, holes that pass the vertebral arteries and veins that supply to the brain. The vertebrae in this region have a smaller body with larger vertebral foramen because the cervical spinal cord is thick due to so many nerves.
T1 to T12 are the twelve thoracic vertebrae located in the upper and middle areas of the back. Lafage et al. (2020) state that these vertebrae are similar to the cervical vertebrae. Still, they are larger and have extended spinous processes, which are directed in the downward position for muscle and ligamentous attachment. Another characteristic of thoracic vertebrae is that the bodies and the transverse processes at the sides of the bodies bear costal facets that form the attachments for the ribs and contribute to the stability of the rib cage and the protection of thoracic organs. Compared to the cervical region, the thoracic has relatively little mobility to provide rigidity and strength for the upper half of the body.
Lumbar vertebrae: These are five vertebrae referred to as L1, L2, L3, L4, and L5 and are located in the lower back. According to Griffith et al. (2022), these are the largest and strongest vertebrae in the vertebral column, for they offer the most support to our body weight and are under much strain when lifting or walking. The lumbar vertebrae are characterized by large and massive bodies, and their spinous processes are short and broad at their bases. The lumbar vertebrae do not contain transverse foramina and costal facets present in the cervical and thoracic vertebrae, respectively, implying that their primary function is weight-bearing without much regard for complex movements and rib-related articulations. The lumbar region has limited motion, mainly in flexion and extension, but it is not as flexible as the cervical region in providing stability.
References
Griffith, J. F., Xiao, F., Hilkens, A., Griffith, I. H. Y., & Leung, J. C. S. (2022). Increased vertebral body area, disc and facet joint degeneration throughout the lumbar spine in patients with lumbosacral transitional vertebrae. European Radiology, 32(9), 6238-6246. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00330-022-08736-0
Lafage, R., Steinberger, J., Pesenti, S., Assi, A., Elysee, J. C., Iyer, S., ... & Lafage, V. (2020). Understanding thoracic spine morphology, shape, and proportionality. Spine, 45(3), 149-157. https://doi.org/10.1097/BRS.0000000000003227
Ovsepyan, A. L., Smirnov, A. A., Pustozerov, E. A., Mokhov, D. E., Mokhova, E. S., Trunin, E. M., ... & Starchik, D. A. (2022). Biomechanical analysis of the cervical spine segment as a method for studying the functional and dynamic anatomy of the human neck. Annals of Anatomy-Anatomischer Anzeiger, 240, 151856. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aanat.2021.151856
TOPIC 4
BIO-201: Human Anatomy and Physiology I: Lab - Topic 4: Joints and Muscle Tissue
By identifying the structure, function, and components of joints, students will understand how different joints contribute to mobility and stability of the body. Different muscle types are located in different areas of the body and do not function the same way, but are responsible for all movement of and within the body, including the heartbeat, digestive processing, and locomotion.
Objectives:
- Identify the basic structure of articulations and selected joints.
- Identify the characteristics and structure of a synovial joint.
- Describe the general functions of the muscular system.
- Describe and understand the function of muscle contractions.
- Identify the different types and functions of muscle tissue at the microscopic level.
- Explain Range of Motion (ROM).
Assessments
BIO-201: Human Anatomy and Physiology I: Lab - Topic 4 DQ 1
Assessment Description:
Identify a common joint injury and explain a treatment for improving range of motion at the site of injury during recovery
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SOLUTION to BIO-201: Human Anatomy and Physiology I: Lab - Topic 4 DQ 1.
Hello everyone,
An anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injury is the most frequent type of joint injury, usually occurring in the knee joint. This injury typically occurs when a person stops suddenly, turns, or changes the direction they are moving in, which is why it is common among football players, basketball players, and skiers. According to Keyhani et al. (2020) ACL tear results in pain, swelling, and instability in the knee, thus diminishing the flexion and extension range of motion.
According to Buckthorpe et al. (2021), there is no better way to regain functional mobility during ACL recovery than physical therapy (PT). PT includes a set of exercises that aim to restore ability and movement and below are some of the ways it can help:
Early Motion Exercises: In the first few days and weeks, the goal is to decrease inflammation, minimize pain, and restore range of motion. Physical therapy activities like heel slides and quadriceps sets promote knee movement without straining the ligament as much as it heals. These exercises are important in warding off stiffness and guarantee the knee does not lose its flexing ability.
Strengthening Exercises: When a patient is recovering, it becomes crucial to ensure that they engage in exercises. Strengthening the quadriceps, hamstrings, and other muscles surrounding the knee helps give the joint more support and stability. Some of the most popular movements that strengthen these muscle groups include leg presses, step-ups, and hamstring curls, among others, to aid joint movements.
Proprioception and Balance Training: Finally, to restore knee function, proprioception and balance exercises are necessary. According to Diermeier et al. (2020), such exercises, like single-limb support and balance surface training, are useful in helping the patient regain control of the knee and balance on it during movements. Proprioception is known to prevent re-injury and also increases joint coordination.
Advanced Functional Training: Advanced functional training is used in the final phases of rehabilitation. It involves movements that imitate the patient’s daily or athletic activities, such as jogging and cutting. Functional strength training prepares the knee to bear everyday activities so that confidence and the complete range of motion are considered.
References
Buckthorpe, M., Danelon, F., La Rosa, G., Nanni, G., Stride, M., & Della Villa, F. (2021). Recommendations for hamstring function recovery after ACL reconstruction. Sports Medicine, 51(4), 607-624.
Diermeier, T., Rothrauff, B. B., Engebretsen, L., Lynch, A. D., Ayeni, O. R., Paterno, M. V., ... & Wilk, K. E. (2020). Treatment after anterior cruciate ligament injury: Panther symposium ACL treatment consensus group. Orthopaedic Journal of Sports Medicine, 8(6), 2325967120931097. https://doi.org/10.1177/2325967120931097
Keyhani, S., Esmailiejah, A. A., Mirhoseini, M. S., Hosseininejad, S. M., & Ghanbari, N. (2020). The prevalence, zone, and type of the meniscus tear in patients with anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injury; does delayed ACL reconstruction affects the meniscal injury? Archives of Bone and Joint Surgery, 8(3), 432. https://doi.org/10.22038%2Fabjs.2019.39084.2076
TOPIC 5
BIO-201: Human Anatomy and Physiology I: Lab - Topic 5: Muscles
Muscles are the structures that allow us to move our bodies, guard entrances and exits, pump blood through the body, and move food through the digestive system. Identifying the major muscles of the body is important to understanding how the body moves and functions.
Objectives:
- Explain the function of major muscle groups.
- Identify specific major muscles and indicate their origins, insertions, and actions.
- Compare the major muscle groups of the upper and lower limbs, and relate their differences to their functional roles.
Assessments
BIO-201: Human Anatomy and Physiology I: Lab - Topic 5 DQ 1
Assessment Description:
Describe any new technologies or therapies that could help minimize muscle atrophy for a patient confined to a bed for a long period of time.
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SOLUTION to BIO-201: Human Anatomy and Physiology I: Lab - Topic 5 DQ 1.
Hello everyone,
Preventing muscle atrophy in bedbound patients is essential for preserving muscle function. Present-day advancements in technology and cure offer a viable solution to this problem.
A relatively popular technology that also demonstrated a high potential for preventing muscle atrophy is Neuromuscular Electrical Stimulation (NMES). According to Bao et al. (2022), NMES employs electricity to contract muscles, which is similar to how muscles contract normally. It could be most useful for patients confined to bed most of the time due to their medical conditions and thus cannot exercise. Another benefit NMES offers is positive stimulation of muscles that help prevent extreme muscle atrophy associated with a long-term bedridden state. Some clinical trials suggest that NMES may improve muscle strength and endurance, which justifies its application to addressing muscle disuse in immobile patients.
Robotic Exoskeletons is another technique implemented to address the issue of muscle atrophy. Garces et al. (2022) state that these wearable devices are intended to help and facilitate movements of the patient’s limbs, whether through postural or active assistance movements. For example, a robotic exoskeleton can activate muscles that do not work for patients with severe mobility disorders. In this way, the devices support the limbs to ensure that the muscles do not degenerate and the rate of atrophy is minimized. Robotic exoskeletons can be especially helpful in rehabilitation procedures; they may help the patient rehabilitate and enhance muscles.
Blood Flow Restriction (BFR) Therapy is a novel approach to stopping muscle wastage. BFR entails using a tourniquet or cuff around the limbs to minimize blood circulation as the patient performs exercises of lesser intensity. This procedure helps to reduce oxygen supply to the muscles, thus promoting muscle building and strength even without training. A recent research study by Zhang et al. (2022) showed that BFR therapy preserves muscle mass and enhances muscle power among bedbound patients, which provides hope in eradicating muscle atrophy.
References
Bao, W., Yang, J., Li, M., Chen, K., Ma, Z., Bai, Y., & Xu, Y. (2022). Prevention of muscle atrophy in ICU patients without nerve injury by neuromuscular electrical stimulation: A randomized controlled study. BMC Musculoskeletal Disorders, 23(1), 780. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12891-022-05739-2
Garces, E., Puyuelo, G., Sánchez-Iglesias, I., Del Rey, J. C. F., Cumplido, C., Destarac, M., ... & Garcia, E. (2022). Using a robotic exoskeleton at home: An activity tolerance case study of a child with spinal muscular atrophy. Journal of Pediatric Nursing, 67, e71-e78. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pedn.2022.09.014
Zhang, X. Z., Xie, W. Q., Chen, L., Xu, G. D., Wu, L., Li, Y. S., & Wu, Y. X. (2022). Blood flow restriction training for the intervention of sarcopenia: Current stage and future perspective. Frontiers in Medicine, 9, 894996. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmed.2022.894996
TOPIC 6
BIO-201: Human Anatomy and Physiology I: Lab - Topic 6: Nervous Tissue, Central and Peripheral Nervous System
The nervous system is highly organized with regard to structure-function relationships. Knowing the major structures of the nervous system will help students understand the functions of various structures, enabling them to understand the underlying mechanisms of diseases and their impacts on organ systems.
Objectives:
- Identify the different types of nervous tissue at the microscopic level.
- Describe the general organization of the nervous system.
- Identify and describe the function of the major components of the brain and spinal cord.
- Identify the cranial meninges and describe their function.
- Identify and follow the flow of cerebrospinal fluid through the central nervous system.
- Identify major peripheral nerves.
- Explain reflexes and two-point discrimination.
Assessments
BIO-201: Human Anatomy and Physiology I: Lab - Topic 6 DQ 1
Assessment Description:
Someday in the future, we may have the technology to transplant a human brain the way we currently do with many other organs of the body. Why do you think we cannot successfully transplant a brain yet?
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SOLUTION to BIO-201: Human Anatomy and Physiology I: Lab - Topic 6 DQ 1.
Hello everyone,
The idea of brain transplant is a deep and multi-layered issue that would have a serious impact on science and ethical paradigms. While there are various important aspects to consider in the process of a human brain transplant, there are several reasons that explain why we cannot transplant one successfully yet. First, the subject of neural networks with the rest of the body presents the first major challenge. Joffe et al. (2021) state that the human brain consists of about 100 billion neurons and at least one billion synapses with the spinal cord and the peripheral nerve system. Simply attaching these connections, specifically the spinal cord, onto a new body is a monumental task. Modern medicine does not enable the growth of new neural structures as it would under a brain transplant operation.
Secondly, it is important to acknowledge the function of the brain in terms of identity and consciousness, which further complicates the issue. In contrast to other organs, the brain contains memories, personality, and consciousness. Replacing everyone’s brain with a new body impacts identity and self-concept beyond what most can imagine. Assuming a person had their brain transplanted into a different body, are they then the same person, or do they adopt a new identity due to the environment that the new body provides? These philosophical and ethical issues make the idea of brain transplantation even more problematic.
Third, immunity is the formidable barrier that hinders the process. Saeed et al. (2023) state that the blood-brain barrier shields the brain and the rest of the body's immune system from attacking the neural tissue. However, using a brain transplant could cause an immune response that may result in rejection of the brain or cause serious neurological effects. Today’s immunosuppressive treatment that accompanies organ transplants might not effectively address these aspects without detrimental side effects.
Finally, the ethics and the law must be included. The concept of brain transplantation raises critical questions and concerns relating to medical ethics and the law. Before these or similar procedures could be considered, questions of consent, identity, and what constitutes life and death must be ironed out.
References
Joffe, A. R., Khaira, G., & de Caen, A. R. (2021). The intractable problems with brain death and possible solutions. Philosophy, Ethics, and Humanities in Medicine, 16(1), 11. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13010-021-00107-9
Saeed, B., Sheikh, N. M., Shahzadi, N., & Khan, Z. H. (2023). Shaping self-perception: The intricate relationship between self-concept self-image and body dysmorphic disorder. Journal of Positive School Psychology, 7(5), 1043-1059.
TOPIC 7
BIO-201: Human Anatomy and Physiology I: Lab - Topic 7: Cranial Nerves
Nerves relay information to and from the brain. Nerve damage can affect both internal and external sensory perception and motor controls.
Objectives:
- Identify the twelve cranial nerves by name and number, indicating modality and function for each cranial nerve.
- Explain cranial nerve testing.
Assessments
BIO-201: Human Anatomy and Physiology I: Lab - Topic 7 DQ 1
Assessment Description:
Choose a cranial nerve and discuss how the dysfunction of that cranial nerve might affect one's health.
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SOLUTION to BIO-201: Human Anatomy and Physiology I: Lab - Topic 7 DQ 1.
Hello everyone,
The vagus nerve, also referred to by its Latin name nervus vagus, or the tenth cranial nerve, is part of the parasympathetic division of the peripheral nervous system and regulates involuntary actions. Since the vagus nerve impacts numerous systems in the body, it is evident that its dysfunction could cause many health complications. According to Chokroverty and Bhat (2021), the vagus nerve's primary functions include regulating heart rate, stimulating the digestive tract, controlling sweating and movements of the muscles in the mouth region, and speech production. Notably, this nerve can be impaired in a condition referred to as vagus nerve disorder or vagopathy, which has various effects on the patient's health.
For instance, vagus nerve dysfunction in a particular individual may cause cardiovascular disorders. This nerve also controls the heart rate by sending signals it wishes to receive to the heart to slow down. Therefore, if it malfunctions, the ability to adjust the number of beats per minute can be impaired, leading to conditions such as tachycardia (fast heart rate) or bradycardia (slow heart rate). It can further deteriorate into more dangerous cardiac problems, including arrhythmias, which can lead to developing heart attacks or strokes. Also, Libreros-Jiménez et al. (2023) state that nausea, vomiting, and other ailments related to the digestive system are likely to occur due to vagus nerve disorders. It is involved in the regulation of movement of the digestive tract and the secretion of digestive enzymes. When this nerve does not work well, gastroparesis may occur, which is a situation where the stomach cannot normally empty itself of food. Some of the signs of gastroparesis include vomiting, nausea, bloating, and abdominal pain and hence would be considered to have a highly impaired quality of life.
Moreover, there is a relationship between vagus nerve abnormalities and mental health disorders. This nerve is related to the brain's feelings and psychological part. Its failure results in anxiety, depression, and other mood ailments because of its role in the stress response system in the body.
References
Chokroverty, S., & Bhat, S. (2021). Functional neuroanatomy of the peripheral autonomic nervous system. Autonomic Nervous System and Sleep: Order and Disorder, 19-28. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-62263-3_3
Libreros-Jiménez, H. M., Manzo, J., Rojas-Durán, F., Aranda-Abreu, G. E., García-Hernández, L. I., Coria-Ávila, G. A., ... & Hernández-Aguilar, M. E. (2023). On the cranial nerves. NeuroSci, 5(1), 8-38. https://doi.org/10.3390/neurosci5010002