BIO-201: Human Anatomy and Physiology I- Full Course Discussions (Topic 1- Topic 7)

 

TOPIC 1

BIO-201: Human Anatomy and Physiology I - Topic 1: Anatomy, Physiology, Homeostasis, and the Chemistry of Life

The human body is remarkably designed in such a way that it keeps itself in balance, a concept known as homeostasis. Certain chemicals and larger molecules are the building blocks of life. By having a basic understanding of these chemicals, students will be able to appreciate how changes at the chemical level can upset homeostasis in the entire body.

Objectives:

1. Describe the six levels of structural organization of the human body and how they interact.
2. Describe the concept of homeostasis, and differentiate between positive and negative feedback mechanisms.
3. Describe the structural and physical properties of water in an aqueous solution.
4. Describe the concepts of concentration and osmolarity.
5. Review enzymes and activation energy.
6. Identify the differences between inorganic and organic compounds.
7. Explain pH and its importance in physiology.
8. Describe the structure and function macromolecules and classify various types.
9. Outline the steps of cellular respiration.

 

Assessments

BIO-201: Human Anatomy and Physiology I - Summary of Current Course Content Knowledge

Assessment Description:

Academic engagement through active participation in instructional activities related to the course objectives is paramount to your success in this course and future courses.  Through interaction with your instructor and classmates, you will explore the course material and be provided with the best opportunity for objective and competency mastery.  To begin this class, review the course objectives for each Topic, and then answer the following questions as this will help guide your instructor for course instruction. 

1. Which weekly objectives do you have prior knowledge of and to what extent?
2. Which weekly objectives do you have no prior knowledge of?
3. What course-related topics would you like to discuss with your instructor and classmates?  What questions or concerns do you have about this course? 

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SOLUTION to BIO-201: Human Anatomy and Physiology I - Summary of Current Course Content Knowledge.

Hello everyone,

Which weekly objectives do you have prior knowledge of and to what extent?

I have a basic understanding of some of the weekly learning outcomes addressed in topic 1 such as Homeostasis and Feedback mechanisms from my Biology classes. First of all, I feel that I have a good grasp of the basic chemistry of life, which encompasses the properties of water, macromolecules and the distinction between inorganic and organic chemistry. In Topic 2, I acknowledge that cell membrane is made up of phospholipid bilayer and I understand its concept of being selectively permeable. I also know about the cellular transport methods such as diffusion, osmosis and other active transport. About Topic 3, I am familiar with the roles of the integumentary system, as it involves protection, temperature regulation, and synthesis of vitamin D. Moreover, I understand the relative location and functions of different bones and the process of bone formation.

Which weekly objectives do you have no prior knowledge of?

There are several objectives where I have no prior knowledge, notably those in Topic 4 like the microscopic and molecular components of skeletal muscle. In Topic 5, I lack knowledge about saltatory conduction and the role of myelin, as well as the structure and function of the blood-brain barrier and cerebrospinal fluid flow. Topic 6 presents new material for me, specifically the functions of the 12 cranial nerves and the types of information they carry. In Topic 7, I have no prior understanding of the neurotransmitters and pharmacology of the autonomic nervous system or the detailed physiology of equilibrium and hearing.

What course-related topics would you like to discuss with your instructor and classmates?

Notably, I am keen in more recent and complex mechanisms of cellular transport and their implications to human health and illness. Another topic of interest is the processes of neuronal communication, which I want to investigate with an emphasis on how their interruption causes neurological disorders. Some additional topics that should be discussed include the autonomic nervous system, especially the pharmaceutical options and their consequences.

Questions or Concerns:

I have a few questions and concerns regarding the course. One is how we can better integrate and apply the various physiological concepts learned each week to build a comprehensive understanding of the human body. Additionally, I am curious about the most effective ways to assess our understanding of complex physiological processes.

 

BIO-201: Human Anatomy and Physiology I - Class Introductions

Assessment Description:

Take a moment to explore your new classroom and introduce yourself to your fellow classmates. What are you excited about learning? What do you think will be most challenging?

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SOLUTION to BIO-201: Human Anatomy and Physiology I - Class Introductions.

Hello everyone,

My name is Irene and as a Bachelor of Science in Nursing (BSN) student, I look forward to taking Human Anatomy and Physiology I. This is mainly because as a Certified Nursing Assistant (CNA), I have firsthand experience in the practical implementation of patient care, and I would like to extend my knowledge concerning the structure and functioning of the human body. This is an essential course to our nursing training, and I am eager to learn how different systems in our body contribute to maintaining our health or change when disease is present. It specifically makes me enthusiastic about the mysteries of how human bodies and their organs and cells work. Such details will not only improve my existing comprehension of nursing but will also equip me with knowledge for higher-level nursing positions.

Despite my excitement and anticipation, I expect the memorization of numerous and detailed pieces of information, like the names of muscles, bones, and other structures, to be challenging. Another issue arises from the complexity of the physiological processes and their interactions and interdependence. Nonetheless, I should overcome these challenges with appropriate study habits, and the help of instructors and classmates. I am eager to work with every one of you and share knowledge. I hope we turn this into a productive and fulfilling semester where we all, regardless of individual backgrounds, help each other grow and learn.

 

BIO-201: Human Anatomy and Physiology I - Topic 1 DQ 1

Assessment Description:

Give an example of a disease or injury and explain how it is an example of the body being outside of homeostasis.

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SOLUTION to BIO-201: Human Anatomy and Physiology I - Topic 1 DQ 1.

Hello everyone,

Diabetes Mellitus exemplifies a state where the body is essentially out of homeostasis. Homeostasis is about the body’s internal environment staying fairly constant despite changes in the external environment. One significant component of this relationship is glycaemic control or blood sugar regulation done mainly by the hormone insulin from the pancreas. Lewis et al. (2021) state that in a healthy individual, when blood glucose concentration is high due to the consumption of carbohydrates, insulin is produced in the pancreas to help transport glucose into cells to be used as energy or stored as glycogen in the liver. This process brings blood glucose concentration back to normal. On the other hand, low blood glucose level triggers, the secretion of glucagon from the pancreas, which signals the liver to release the stored glucose and consequently increases blood glucose level to normal.

In the case of Diabetes Mellitus, this body regulatory system is affected. There are two main types of diabetes: Type one and type two. In Type 1 diabetes, the body’s immune system reduces the production of insulin by attacking the insulin producing cells in the pancreas. In the absence of insulin, glucose does not get into the cells; it remains in the bloodstream and causes hyperglycemia. Type two diabetes is characterized by insulin resistance, in which the cells of the body cannot respond appropriately to the insulin hormone. At first, the pancreas responds to the increased blood sugar level by producing more insulin but the organ is unable to do it forever and blood sugar rises.

Both conditions describe a disruption in the homeostatic maintenance of blood glucose levels. According to Babel et al. (2021), hyperglycemia has various long-term consequences, which include neuropathy, nephropathy and cardiovascular diseases. Such complications develop because blood vessels and nerves can get affected when a person has high blood sugar levels. Generally, diabetes mellitus is a disease that affects the regulation of blood glucose level and is accompanied by hyperglycaemia, which in chronic cases lead to severe complications.

References

Babel, R. A., & Dandekar, M. P. (2021). A review on cellular and molecular mechanisms linked to the development of diabetes complications. Current Diabetes Reviews, 17(4), 457-473. https://doi.org/10.2174/1573399816666201103143818

Lewis, G. F., Carpentier, A. C., Pereira, S., Hahn, M., & Giacca, A. (2021). Direct and indirect control of hepatic glucose production by insulin. Cell Metabolism, 33(4), 709-720. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cmet.2021.03.007

 

TOPIC 2

BIO-201: Human Anatomy and Physiology I - Topic 2: Cell Physiology & Tissues

The mitochondria in cells are responsible for producing ATP, which is a critical molecule that provides the necessary energy for most cellular processes. By understanding the biochemistry underlying the production of ATP, students will be able to appreciate cellular metabolic processes. Additionally, by recognizing the normal structures and functions of tissues, students will be able to understand how abnormal changes in tissues can lead to diseases.

Objectives:

1. Describe the structure and function of the cell membrane and its selective permeability.
2. Contrast characteristics of extracellular and intracellular fluid.
3. Explain different types of cellular transport.
4. Explain osmosis and the effects of isotonic, hypotonic, and hypertonic solutions on cells.
5. Describe the factors contributing to resting membrane potential.
6. Describe the steps of an action potential.
7. Identify the general characteristics and functions of the four major tissue types.
8. Compare and contrast exocrine and endocrine glands.

 

Assessments

BIO-201: Human Anatomy and Physiology I - Topic 2 DQ 1

Assessment Description:

Lysosomes and mitochondria have important functions in the cell. Research and pick a lysosomal storage disease or a mitochondrial disorder, and summarize what happens.

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SOLUTION to BIO-201: Human Anatomy and Physiology I - Topic 2 DQ 1.

Hello everyone,

Lysosomal storage diseases and mitochondrial disorders are large classes of primary genetic diseases that affect cellular function. An example of a disease caused by the accumulation of lipids in lysosomes is Tay-Sachs disease. Tay-Sachs is an inherited disease which results from the absence of an enzyme known as hexosaminidase A (Hex-A) that helps in degrading a fatty material known as GM2 ganglioside found in neural cells. According to Bertani et al. (2021), the lack or deficiency of this enzyme results in the presence of Hex-A which causes excessive buildup of GM2 ganglioside in neurons’ lysosomes, provoking gradual neuronal degeneration. This build up interferes with normal metabolism causing symptoms like muscle weakness, impaired movements, seizures and finally, deepening neurological impairment. Tay-Sachs is a disease that has its initial symptoms arising at infancy normally soon after six months of age where the child gradually declines in their mental and physical development. However, there is no known treatment for the disease and individuals suffering from Tay-Sachs usually die from it by early childhood.

On the other hand, there are mitochondrial diseases including Leigh syndrome, which involves the mitochondria, which are called the cell’s furnace. Leigh syndrome is a severe encephalopathy with manifestations of neurological dysfunction due to pathogenic variants in mitochondrial DNA or nuclear genes encoding mitochondrial proteins. They affect the normal functioning of mitochondria, thus reducing the production of ATP which is a vital energy source in the cell and resulting in multiple cellular abnormalities. McCormick et al. (2023) state that the signs of Leigh syndrome might be observed as soon as infancy or early childhood and may preliminarily consist of hypotonia, developmental dysfunction, seizures, and breathing problems. Neurological manifestations are due to cellular energy failure in the cells of the brain especially in motor and respiratory areas. Similar to Tay-Sachs, Leigh syndrome is also a degenerative disorder and the majority of children with the condition do not live past a few years after developing symptoms.

 

TOPIC 3

BIO-201: Human Anatomy and Physiology I - Topic 3: The Integument, Skeleton, and Articulations

By learning the anatomy and the associated physiology of the skin (integument), the student will be able to explain how the human body cools itself, produces vitamin D (a crucial regulator of blood calcium levels), and protects itself from infection. Learning about the cellular architecture and arrangement of osseous tissue will enable students to understand bone growth, development, repair, and homeostasis. By understanding the structure, function, and classification of joints, students will be able to understand how different joints contribute to mobility and stability of the body.

Objectives:

1. Describe the functions of components of the integumentary system.
2. Describe repair of the integument.
3. Identify the functions of the skeletal system.
4. Describe the features of a long bone.
5. Compare and contrast compact and spongy bone.
6. Identify the roles of different cellular components in bone growth and ossification.
7. Describe the process of bone growth, development, and repair.
8. Describe the impact of aging, exercise, and lifestyle on bone remodeling.
9. Identify tooth structure, types of teeth, and dental succession.
10. Explain the different structural and functional classifications of articulations.
11. Describe how muscles and articulations work together as lever systems.

 

Assessments

BIO-201: Human Anatomy and Physiology I - Topic 3 DQ 1

Assessment Description:

Osteoporosis and scoliosis are conditions that commonly affect the axial skeleton, specifically the spine. Discuss how these change the curvatures of the spine, and find 1 to 2 ways these can be treated or improved.

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SOLUTION to BIO-201: Human Anatomy and Physiology I - Topic 3 DQ 1

Hello everyone,

Osteoporosis and scoliosis are some of the disorders known to have an impact on the spine. Osteoporosis is a metabolic disorder evidenced by lower bone mass and enhanced brittleness of the spine, which may lead to fractures. Such fractures most commonly affect the vertebrae, resulting in the loss of height and the formation of the exaggerated dorsal curvature called kyphosis. Dittmar et al. (2023) state that Osteoporosis of the spine destroys its structure and leads not only to habitual poor posture but also greatly reduces the patient’s quality of life, plagued by constant pain and limited mobility.

Scoliosis, conversely, is a side-to-side curve of the spine that normally starts in the teenage years. While in normal conditions, there are gentle curves when viewing the side of the spine, in scoliosis, it looks like an S or C when viewed from the front or back. Such curvature may lead to unleveled shoulders, protruding ribs, and displaced waist and hips. Scoliosis is classified in terms of its severity, and though many affected people experience slight discomfort in their lower backs, severe scoliosis can cause substantial pain, respiratory problems, and a decline in functional capacity due to distortion of the spine and rib cage.

Osteoporosis and scoliosis do not necessarily have to be permanent conditions, as they can be treated, and their status can be enhanced. For osteoporosis, drugs like bisphosphonates can minimize the bone loss rate and decrease the chances of fractures. Further, exercises that involve weight bearing, calcium and vitamin D intake, and changes in lifestyle such as quitting smoking and less intake of alcohol are also advised to have strong bones and to improve bone mass. For scoliosis, treatment depends on the severity and progression of the curve. According to Lenz et al. (2021), mild scoliosis may be managed with regular monitoring and physical therapy to improve posture and muscle strength. Notably, in moderate to severe cases, bracing can be used to prevent further curvature progression, especially in growing children.

References

Dittmar, J. M., Mulder, B., Tran, A., Mitchell, P. D., Jones, P. D., Inskip, S. A., ... & Robb, J. E. (2023). Caring for the injured: Exploring the immediate and long-term consequences of injury in medieval Cambridge, England. International Journal of Paleopathology, 40, 7-19. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpp.2022.07.004

Lenz, M., Oikonomidis, S., Harland, A., Fürnstahl, P., Farshad, M., Bredow, J., & Scheyerer, M. J. (2021). Scoliosis and Prognosis—a systematic review regarding patient-specific and radiological predictive factors for curve progression. European Spine Journal, 30, 1813-1822. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00586-021-06817-0

 

TOPIC 4

BIO-201: Human Anatomy and Physiology I - Topic 4: Skeletal and Smooth Muscle

A thorough understanding of the microscopic and macroscopic structures and function of muscle is a critical foundation for students pursuing careers in the medical field. After learning the steps of excitation-contraction coupling, students will be able to understand how the nervous system activates muscle tissue, which is important to the function of many of the body's systems.

Objectives:

1. Identify the functions of skeletal muscle.
2. Describe the macroscopic, microscopic, and molecular components of skeletal muscle.
3. Describe the sequence of events involved in skeletal muscle contraction, including sliding filament theory.
4. Describe the length-tension relationship.
5. Describe motor units and motor unit recruitment and contraction types of skeletal muscle.
6. Describe the energetics of skeletal muscle contraction.
7. Compare and contrast the differences between skeletal muscle fiber types.

 

Assessments

BIO-201: Human Anatomy and Physiology I - Topic 4 DQ 1

Assessment Description:

Studying can be a collaborative effort. In this discussion question, you will create a practice question for the midterm for the rest of the class to study from. You must follow the requirements listed below to receive full credit: • Initial post must contain the question. • The question should be at least 2-3 sentences long. • It must be about material that will be covered on the midterm. • It can be a multiple-choice, fill in the blank, or short answer style question. • It cannot be a repeat question that someone else has already posted; you must post an original question on material that had not been asked about already. • You must respond to your question with the answer.

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SOLUTION to BIO-201: Human Anatomy and Physiology I - Topic 4 DQ 1

Hello everyone,

Question: Compare and contrast the cellular mechanisms and clinical manifestations of Gaucher disease and MELAS syndrome. How do these conditions affect cellular function, and what are the primary treatment options for each disease?

Answer: Gaucher disease is a lysosomal storage disease due to a deficiency in the enzyme glucocerebrosidase. Roh et al. (2022) state that this enzyme facilitates lysosomal degradation of a fatty substance known as glucocerebroside. When the enzyme is absent or deficient, globotriaosylceramide accumulates in macrophages forming Gaucher cells. These cells also gather in the liver, the spleen, the bone marrow, and various other tissues, interfering with regular cell processes and causing numerous symptoms. The primary manifestations of Gaucher disease are hepatosplenomegaly, anemia, thrombocytopenia, bone pain, and skeletal abnormalities. The most common treatments include enzyme replacement therapy (ERT) using imiglucerase or substrate reduction therapy (SRT) with eliglustat which allows for reduction of glucocerebroside buildup within cells.

MELAS syndrome is a mitochondrial disorder which results from the mutations in mitochondrial DNA and it compromises the normal function of mitochondria hindering cellular energy production. According to Lin et al. (2022), this occurs in tissues that have high energy turnover such as the neuromuscular tissues. MELAS is characterized clinically by recurrent stroke-like episodes, pyramidal weakness, seizures, elevated serum lactate, migraine and declining EEG or cognitive function. Notably, its manifestation is common in childhood or early adulthood. MELAS syndrome has no cure; however, treatment aims at alleviating symptoms, and patients are sometimes given CoQ10 and L-arginine supplements to improve the dysfunction of mitochondria and decrease the occurrence of the stroke-like episodes.

Generally, Gaucher disease and MELAS syndrome – affect cellular functions although in different ways. Gaucher’s disease is characterized by the deposition of molecules referred to as glucocerebroside in the lysosomes due to deficiency of enzymes and this results in tissue injury and organ malfunction. On the other hand, MELAS is caused by mutations in mitochondrial DNA affecting cellular respiration and causing neurological and muscular effects. Management of Gaucher disease comprises enzyme replacement and substrate reduction, and MELAS syndrome entails mainly the alleviation of symptoms and mitochondrial support.

References

Lin, D. S., Huang, Y. W., Ho, C. S., Huang, T. S., Lee, T. H., Wu, T. Y., ... & Wang, T. J. (2022). Impact of mitochondrial A3243G heteroplasmy on mitochondrial bioenergetics and dynamics of directly reprogrammed MELAS neurons. Cells, 12(1), 15. https://doi.org/10.3390/cells12010015

Roh, J., Subramanian, S., Weinreb, N. J., & Kartha, R. V. (2022). Gaucher disease–more than just a rare lipid storage disease. Journal of Molecular Medicine, 100(4), 499-518. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00109-021-02174-z

 

TOPIC 5

BIO-201: Human Anatomy and Physiology I - Topic 5: Neuronal Communication and the Brain

Understanding nerve structure and function allows students to begin making connections between major brain regions and the associated areas of the body that they control, enabling them to understand the underlying mechanisms of diseases and their impact on organ systems. Understanding nerve function allows students to identify disruptions in normal neuronal communication and disease mechanisms. The brain has been extensively studied but still remains one of the least understood regions of the human body.

Objectives:

1. Describe the characteristics and function of neurons and neuroglia.
2. Explain the role of myelin in saltatory conduction.
3. Describe the process of and factors involved in synaptic communication.
4. Describe spinal reflexes.
5. Describe the functions of the cranial meninges.
6. Describe the production and flow of cerebral spinal fluid.
7. Describe the structure and function of the blood brain barrier.
8. Describe the functions of the major components of the brain and spinal cord.

 

Assessments

BIO-201: Human Anatomy and Physiology I - Topic 5 DQ 1

Assessment Description:

Choose an illicit drug and explain the pharmacology of its action at a synapse.

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SOLUTION to BIO-201: Human Anatomy and Physiology I - Topic 5 DQ 1.

Hello everyone,

Methamphetamine, an illegal stimulant, has a dramatic impact on the central nervous system, primarily through synaptic transmission. There are several ways that methamphetamine works at a synapse level, which are the following: Methamphetamine, when it reaches the brain, enhances the release of monoamine neurotransmitters, particularly dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin, through acting on the transporter proteins that are involved in the reuptake of these neurotransmitters. Tomášková et al. (2020) state that under normal conditions, these transporters, like dopamine transporter (DAT), or serotonin transporter (SERT), repost the neurotransmitters back to the presynaptic neuron from the synaptic cleft. Methamphetamine alters this process and makes these transporters function oppositely, pumping neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft.

Furthermore, methamphetamine reduces the activity of monoamine oxidase, which is an enzyme that is involved in the breakdown of excess neurotransmitters. This inhibition enhances the accumulation of dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin in the synaptic cleft. The increase in the concentration of these neurotransmitters prolongs and improves the signaling process at the postsynaptic receptors, which contributes to the specific effects of the drug, like increased wakefulness, energy, feelings of pleasure, and decreased appetite. Specifically, the amount of dopamine released in the brain is critical to its addictive qualities. The neurotransmitter most involved in the brain’s reward system is dopamine, and Methamphetamine produces a robust increase in dopamine levels that leads to strong feelings of pleasure and reward.

Notably, Hamor et al. (2023) state that the long-term use of methamphetamine results in neuroadaptations, which include down-regulation of receptors, especially the dopamine receptors, and a reduction in dopamine levels in the body. Such modifications can lead to the development of tolerance, whereby a larger quantity of the substance is needed to produce the same effects, and dependence, and the lack of the substance causes withdrawal symptoms.  Long-term effects of methamphetamine include the disruption in the dopaminergic pathway in the brain, resulting in impaired cognitive ability, mood changes, and vulnerability to neurodegenerative disorders. Knowing how methamphetamine works at the synapse of nerve cells is useful for comprehending the strength of its impact, and the highly damaging effects of this substance.

References

Hámor, P. U., Knackstedt, L. A., & Schwendt, M. (2023). The role of metabotropic glutamate receptors in neurobehavioral effects associated with methamphetamine use. International Review of Neurobiology, 168, 177-219. https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.irn.2022.10.005

Tomášková, A., Šlamberová, R., & Černá, M. (2020). Influence of prenatal methamphetamine abuse on the brain. Epigenomes, 4(3), 14. https://doi.org/10.3390/epigenomes4030014

 

TOPIC 6

BIO-201: Human Anatomy and Physiology I - Topic 6: Cranial Nerves & Sensory Processing

Students will learn the normal functions of the twelve cranial nerves, and be able to explain why health care providers perform neurological exams. Students will also learn about the basics of sensory processing to understand how specialized sensory receptors interpret the world around us.

Objectives:

1. Describe the functions of the 12 cranial nerves, including the type of information carried by each cranial nerve.
2. Describe the processing of somatic sensory information by the somatosensory cortex.
3. Define sensory adaptation and the different types of sensory receptors.

 

Assessments

BIO-201: Human Anatomy and Physiology I - Topic 6 DQ 1

Assessment Description:

Give an example of an autonomic disorder. Explain which division of the autonomic nervous system is affected, how it is affected, and briefly describe the signs and symptoms.

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SOLUTION to BIO-201: Human Anatomy and Physiology I - Topic 6 DQ 1.

Hello professor and class,

An example of an autonomic disorder is Postural Orthostatic Tachycardia Syndrome (POTS). POTS mainly affects the sympathetic branch of the autonomic nervous system, which controls the body's 'fight or flight' response by regulating pulse rate and pressure. In POTS, standing up increases one’s pulse rate, and they experience many uncomfortable symptoms with them.

Olshansky et al. (2020) state that in POTS, there is an increased sympathetic stimulation in response to standing. Usually, when a person rises from a sitting or lying position, blood flows down towards the legs. The body reacts to this effect of gravity by narrowing the blood vessels, and the heart rate beats slightly faster to ensure that the head and brain supply adequate blood. However, the autonomic tone is also increased in POTS, but the compensatory mechanism is impaired. This is a condition characterized by a rapid heart rate above 30 beats per minute or going to as low as more than 120 beats in the first ten minutes of standing. This abnormal response could be due to autonomic neuropathy, or hyperadrenergic states when there is over-stimulation of norepinephrine release.

POTS shows various signs and symptoms, which affect the quality of life of affected individuals considerably. The main symptom is tachycardia, where the one’s heart rate goes up very high on standing, and this comes with some complications such as fainting, dizziness, lightheadedness, and palpitations. Other symptoms seen in the patients include fatigue, headaches, nausea, and difficulty performing exercises. Mental changes are frequently described as "brain fog,”" gastrointestinal problems, and problems with thermoregulation. Notably, Barbic et al. (2020) state that the management of POTS includes lifestyle modification and pharmacological intervention. Maintaining proper hydration, especially in terms of water and sodium, might positively impact blood volume. At the same time, the use of compression clothing could assist in reducing blood accumulation in the lower extremities. Beta-blockers, fludrocortisone, and midodrine are sometimes used to control the symptoms, as they help manage the patient's heart rate and blood pressure.

References

Barbic, F., Minonzio, M., Cairo, B., Shiffer, D., Zamuner, A. R., Cavalieri, S., ... & Furlan, R. (2020). Work ability assessment and its relationship with cardiovascular autonomic profile in postural orthostatic tachycardia syndrome. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(21), 7836. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17217836

Olshansky, B., Cannom, D., Fedorowski, A., Stewart, J., Gibbons, C., Sutton, R., & Benditt, D. G. (2020). Postural orthostatic tachycardia syndrome (POTS): A critical assessment. Progress in Cardiovascular Diseases, 63(3), 263-270. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pcad.2020.03.010

 

TOPIC 7

BIO-201: Human Anatomy and Physiology I - Topic 7: Autonomic Nervous System & Special Senses

The autonomic nervous system allows the human body to regulate things like heart rate, airway diameter, and digestive functions. This is perhaps the most important topic that students will need to master as it provides a critical foundation for their future courses. The special senses refer to the anatomy and physiology underlying sight, hearing, smell, and taste. Students will learn the basic physiologies of each of these senses.

Objectives:

1. Describe the functional divisions and structural organization of the autonomic nervous system.
2. Identify neurotransmitters, receptors, and selected pharmacology of the autonomic nervous system.
3. Identify the organs innervated by the autonomic nervous system.
4. Describe the physiology of vision and the steps in phototransduction.
5. Describe the physiology of equilibrium and the steps in the hearing process.

 

Assessments

BIO-201: Human Anatomy and Physiology I - Topic 7 DQ 1

Assessment Description:

Give an example of a refraction disorder of the eye. Explain what is causing the disorder and how it can be corrected.

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SOLUTION to BIO-201: Human Anatomy and Physiology I - Topic 7 DQ 1.

Hello class,

There are several types of refraction disorders of the eye, but one of the most widespread and common is myopia, also called nearsightedness. Myopia is caused by abnormal eye length or a too curved cornea (Baird et al., 2020). This structural problem leads to light gathering in front of the retina and not directly on the retina. This means that distant objects appear fuzzy while near objects can easily be distinguished. The risk factor for myopia is commonly a blend of hereditary and environmental factors. Myopia is a hereditary disease, and as such, myopic children are usually born to myopic parents. Moreover, close-up work like reading or using gadgets with extended usage also leads to myopia progression, particularly in children and teenagers.

Treatment of myopia normally requires glasses or laser vision correction. Spectacles or RGP lenses are the simplest and non-surgical options for handling myopia. These lenses assist in changing the direction of the light passing through the eye to focus it directly on the retina. Biconvex lenses are thicker at the center and thinner at the edges to help bend the light rays to focus on the retina upon entering the eye.

For individuals who want a permanent fix for their vision problems, refractive surgery like LASIK (Laser-Assisted In Situ Keratomileusis) can be an excellent solution. Farooq et al. (2020) state that LASIK involves using a laser to alter the shape of the cornea so that the cornea’s curvature will enable light to focus on the retina appropriately. Another type of surgery is PRK or Photorefractive Keratectomy, but in this case, the outer surface cells of the cornea are removed to create the flap that is then reshaped. Both procedures have very high success rates and can reduce and, in many cases, eliminate the need for glasses or contact lenses.

References

Baird, P. N., Saw, S. M., Lanca, C., Guggenheim, J. A., Smith III, E. L., Zhou, X., ... & He, M. (2020). Myopia. Nature Reviews Disease Primers, 6(1), 99. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41572-020-00231-4

Farooq, A., Giri, P., & Azar, D. (2020). Striving for perfect vision: Insights from refractive surgery. Foundations of Corneal Disease: Past, Present and Future, 159-184. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-25335-6_14